This book goes beyond the truism that ‘correlation does not imply causation’ and explores the logical and methodological relationships between correlation and causation. It presents a series of statistical methods that can test, and potentially dis- cover, cause–effect relationships between variables in situations in which it is not possible to conduct randomised or experimentally controlled experiments. Many of these methods are quite new and most are generally unknown to biologists. In addition to describing how to conduct these statistical tests, the book also puts the methods into historical context and explains when they can and cannot justifiably be used to test or discover causal claims. Written in a conversational style that minimises technical jargon, the book is aimed at practising biologists and advanced students, and assumes only a very basic knowledge of introductory statistics.